Plato, Phaedrus
Key Ideas: Charioteer metaphor—two horses, one perfect and one unruly; Rhetoric is an art and imperative for rhetoricians to know the Truth, since rhetoric can be deceptive; A rhetor should lead the audience to the Truth via persuasion; Writing as fundamentally different from speech
Plato’s Phaedrus is a dialogue that takes place between Phaedrus, a young student, and his mentor, Socrates. The dialogue consists of three speeches on the topic of love; however, the content of the speeches serves to discuss the proper use of rhetoric.
Phaedrus has acquired a speech by Lysias concerning whether one should show favor to the lover or the non-lover, which—after some prompting— he shares with Socrates. Lysias’ speech details numerous reasons why it is better to give favor to a non-lover than to a lover. When Phaedrus has finished reading the speech, Socrates flatters him while sarcastically praising the speech. Socrates then claims that he could make an even better speech than Lysias on the same subject. Despite this claim, Phaedrus must persuade Socrates to give the speech. When Socrates assents, he covers his head and begins. In this speech, Socrates explains the consequences of desire, explaining that one overcome with love will want to turn his boy into whatever is most pleasing to himself, rather than what is best for the boy. After concluding his speech, Socrates makes to leave, but is stopped by a divine sign to make atonement for some offense to the gods. At this point, Socrates admits that he finds fault with both speeches because they portrayed love as bad, which if they believe love is divine, it cannot be.
Socrates then proceeds to give a speech in praise of the lover. His speech carefully lays out the definition of love. Socrates claims that all souls occupying human bodies were once divine, but have forgotten divinity because of their entrapment in the body. Beauty, experienced through the most powerful sense, sight, may help souls to remember their time in the ether among gods. So, too, can love aid in the soul’s return to the cosmos: Socrates claims that it is through a reasoned and beautiful love that a soul regains his wings and, upon death, may rejoin the gods, especially if the soul has sought out a lover who exemplifies the traits of a god. Difficulties with love arise not from love itself, but from the imbalance of the human soul, Socrates likens to a chariot driver with one perfect horse and one unruly horse. Maintaining a balance between the two eventually leads to the breaking of the unruly horse and the elevation of consciousness. He concludes that a lover’s friendship is divine, while a non-lover’s is narrow and mortal. Phaedrus concedes that this final speech is the best of all.
Their discussion shifts to that of rhetoric and writing. Phaedrus claims that to be a good speaker, one need only know how to properly persuade, and not necessarily the truth of what he is speaking about. Socrates disagrees and goes on to describe the importance of clearly defined terms and careful arrangement. He likens the arrangement of a speech to a living body, explaining that each has its proper place and function. It is also vital for a rhetor to have a clear and “correct” knowledge of the topic covered in the speech. Socrates claims that Lysias did not know enough about love to speak on it, making a variety of missteps as a result. A speaker is obligated to present the truth (Truth), Socrates continues, and often finds his invention in topics that are uncertain in nature. A rhetor must argue what is probable – not was is known to be factual. It is the rhetor’s job to lead the audience--by persuasion-- to the truth. He compares rhetoric to planting a seed and helping it to grow. Finally, Socrates presents a criticism of writing, namely that is leads to a lack of memory and that it does not invite a dialectic approach to discourse. For Socrates, the dialectic allows for questioning and teaching in a way that written discourse does not.
Ultimately, Phaedrus presents rhetoric as an art that leads others--through persuasion--toward universal truth. This truth establishes the dichotomies of good/bad, mind/body, man/woman, lover/nonlover, culture/nature, truth/untruth, human/animal, and others. The truth is revealed to humans through sensory experiences, but humans must practice balance, rationality, and morality in order for the truth to be revealed. Moreover, all souls have had access to truth, but have lost it through their encounters with the material world. The dialectic, when utilized properly, can help the soul re-see that truth.
Plato’s Phaedrus is a dialogue that takes place between Phaedrus, a young student, and his mentor, Socrates. The dialogue consists of three speeches on the topic of love; however, the content of the speeches serves to discuss the proper use of rhetoric.
Phaedrus has acquired a speech by Lysias concerning whether one should show favor to the lover or the non-lover, which—after some prompting— he shares with Socrates. Lysias’ speech details numerous reasons why it is better to give favor to a non-lover than to a lover. When Phaedrus has finished reading the speech, Socrates flatters him while sarcastically praising the speech. Socrates then claims that he could make an even better speech than Lysias on the same subject. Despite this claim, Phaedrus must persuade Socrates to give the speech. When Socrates assents, he covers his head and begins. In this speech, Socrates explains the consequences of desire, explaining that one overcome with love will want to turn his boy into whatever is most pleasing to himself, rather than what is best for the boy. After concluding his speech, Socrates makes to leave, but is stopped by a divine sign to make atonement for some offense to the gods. At this point, Socrates admits that he finds fault with both speeches because they portrayed love as bad, which if they believe love is divine, it cannot be.
Socrates then proceeds to give a speech in praise of the lover. His speech carefully lays out the definition of love. Socrates claims that all souls occupying human bodies were once divine, but have forgotten divinity because of their entrapment in the body. Beauty, experienced through the most powerful sense, sight, may help souls to remember their time in the ether among gods. So, too, can love aid in the soul’s return to the cosmos: Socrates claims that it is through a reasoned and beautiful love that a soul regains his wings and, upon death, may rejoin the gods, especially if the soul has sought out a lover who exemplifies the traits of a god. Difficulties with love arise not from love itself, but from the imbalance of the human soul, Socrates likens to a chariot driver with one perfect horse and one unruly horse. Maintaining a balance between the two eventually leads to the breaking of the unruly horse and the elevation of consciousness. He concludes that a lover’s friendship is divine, while a non-lover’s is narrow and mortal. Phaedrus concedes that this final speech is the best of all.
Their discussion shifts to that of rhetoric and writing. Phaedrus claims that to be a good speaker, one need only know how to properly persuade, and not necessarily the truth of what he is speaking about. Socrates disagrees and goes on to describe the importance of clearly defined terms and careful arrangement. He likens the arrangement of a speech to a living body, explaining that each has its proper place and function. It is also vital for a rhetor to have a clear and “correct” knowledge of the topic covered in the speech. Socrates claims that Lysias did not know enough about love to speak on it, making a variety of missteps as a result. A speaker is obligated to present the truth (Truth), Socrates continues, and often finds his invention in topics that are uncertain in nature. A rhetor must argue what is probable – not was is known to be factual. It is the rhetor’s job to lead the audience--by persuasion-- to the truth. He compares rhetoric to planting a seed and helping it to grow. Finally, Socrates presents a criticism of writing, namely that is leads to a lack of memory and that it does not invite a dialectic approach to discourse. For Socrates, the dialectic allows for questioning and teaching in a way that written discourse does not.
Ultimately, Phaedrus presents rhetoric as an art that leads others--through persuasion--toward universal truth. This truth establishes the dichotomies of good/bad, mind/body, man/woman, lover/nonlover, culture/nature, truth/untruth, human/animal, and others. The truth is revealed to humans through sensory experiences, but humans must practice balance, rationality, and morality in order for the truth to be revealed. Moreover, all souls have had access to truth, but have lost it through their encounters with the material world. The dialectic, when utilized properly, can help the soul re-see that truth.
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